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<title>Nursing</title>

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<span id="openzim-page-title" class="mw-page-title-main"><span class="mw-page-title-main">Nursing</span></span>

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">For other uses, see <a href="Nursing_(disambiguation)" class="mw-disambig" title="Nursing (disambiguation)">Nursing (disambiguation)</a>.</div>

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</style><table class="infobox"><caption class="infobox-title">Nursing</caption><tbody><tr><td colspan="2" class="infobox-image"><div class="infobox-caption">A nurse checks a patient's blood pressure.</div></td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Occupation</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Activity sectors</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Nursing</td></tr><tr><th colspan="2" class="infobox-header">Description</th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label">Competencies</th><td class="infobox-data">Caring for general and specialized well-being of patients</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Education required</div></th><td class="infobox-data">Qualifications in terms of statutory regulations according to national, state, or provincial legislation in each country</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Fields of<br>employment</div></th><td class="infobox-data">

<ul><li><a href="Hospital" title="Hospital">Hospital</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinic" title="Clinic">Clinic</a></li>

<li><a href="Laboratory" title="Laboratory">Laboratory</a></li>

<li><a href="Research" title="Research">Research</a></li>

<li><a href="Education" title="Education">Education</a></li>

</td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="infobox-label"><div style="display: inline-block; line-height: 1.2em; padding: .1em 0;">Related jobs</div></th><td class="infobox-data">

<ul><li><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Glossary of medicine</a></li></ul>

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<p><b>Nursing</b> is a <a href="Health_care" title="Health care">health care</a> profession that "integrates the art and science of caring and focuses on the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and human functioning; prevention of illness and injury; facilitation of healing; and alleviation of suffering through compassionate presence".<sup id="cite_ref-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-1"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>1<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses practice in many <a href="List_of_nursing_specialties" title="List of nursing specialties">specialties</a> with varying levels of certification and responsibility. Nurses comprise the largest component of most healthcare environments.<sup id="cite_ref-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-2"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>2<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-3" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-3"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>3<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> There are shortages of qualified nurses in many countries.<sup id="cite_ref-4" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-4"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>4<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nurses develop a plan of care, working collaboratively with <a href="Physicians" class="mw-redirect" title="Physicians">physicians</a>, <a href="Therapist" class="mw-redirect" title="Therapist">therapists</a>, patients, patients' families, and other team members that focuses on treating illness to improve quality of life.

</p><p>In the United Kingdom and the United States, clinical nurse specialists and nurse practitioners diagnose health problems and prescribe medications and other therapies, depending on regulations that vary by state.<sup id="cite_ref-5" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-5"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>5<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses may help coordinate care performed by other providers or act independently as nursing professionals. In addition to providing care and support, nurses educate the public and promote health and wellness.<sup id="cite_ref-6" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-6"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>6<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>

In the U.S., nurse practitioners are nurses with a graduate degree in advanced practice nursing, and are permitted to prescribe medications. They practice independently in a variety of settings in more than half of the United States. In the <a href="Post-war" title="Post-war">postwar</a> period, nurse education has diversified, awarding <a href="Nursing_credentials_and_certifications" title="Nursing credentials and certifications">advanced and specialized credentials</a>, and many traditional regulations and roles are changing.<sup id="cite_ref-7" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-7"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>7<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-8" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-8"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>8<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><style data-mw-deduplicate="TemplateStyles:r886046785">

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<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="History">History</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="History_of_nursing" title="History of nursing">History of nursing</a> and <a href="Timeline_of_nursing_history" title="Timeline of nursing history">Timeline of nursing history</a></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Premodern">Premodern</h3></div>

<p>Nursing historians face challenges of determining whether care provided to the sick or injured in antiquity is called nursing care.<sup id="cite_ref-OLYNN2007_9-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-OLYNN2007-9"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>9<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In the fifth century BC, for example, the <a href="Hippocratic_Collection" class="mw-redirect" title="Hippocratic Collection">Hippocratic Collection</a> in places described skilled care and observation of patients by male "attendants," who may have provided care now provided by nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-LEVINE1965_10-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-LEVINE1965-10"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>10<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Around 600 BC in India, it is recorded in <i><a href="Sushruta_Samhita" title="Sushruta Samhita">Sushruta Samhita</a></i>, Book 3, Chapter V about the role of the nurse as "the different parts or members of the body as mentioned before including the skin, cannot be correctly described by one who is not well versed in anatomy. Hence, anyone desirous of acquiring a thorough knowledge of anatomy should prepare a dead body and carefully, observe, by dissecting it, and examining its different parts."

</p><p>In the <a href="Middle_Ages" title="Middle Ages">Middle Ages</a>, members of <a href="Religious_orders" class="mw-redirect" title="Religious orders">religious orders</a> such as <a href="Nuns" class="mw-redirect" title="Nuns">nuns</a> and <a href="Monks" class="mw-redirect" title="Monks">monks</a> often provided nursing-like care.<sup id="cite_ref-BLOY_11-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLOY-11"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>11<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Examples exist in <a href="Christianity" title="Christianity">Christian</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-FERNGREN2009_12-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FERNGREN2009-12"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>12<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Islamic" class="mw-redirect" title="Islamic">Islamic</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-SACHEDINA2009_13-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-SACHEDINA2009-13"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>13<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Buddhist" class="mw-redirect" title="Buddhist">Buddhist</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-DEBARY2011_14-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-DEBARY2011-14"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>14<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and other traditions. The biblical figure of <a href="Phoebe_(biblical_figure)" title="Phoebe (biblical figure)">Phoebe</a> is described in many sources as "the first visiting nurse".<sup id="cite_ref-EGENES2009_15-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-EGENES2009-15"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>15<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-STRIEPE1992_16-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-STRIEPE1992-16"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>16<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These traditions were influential in the development of the <a href="Ethos" title="Ethos">ethos</a> of modern nursing. Its religious roots remain in evidence in many countries. One example in the <a href="United_Kingdom" title="United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> is the use of the historical title "sister" to refer to a senior nurse.<sup id="cite_ref-WAND2004_17-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WAND2004-17"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>17<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>During the <a href="Reformation" title="Reformation">Reformation</a>, <a href="Protestant" class="mw-redirect" title="Protestant">Protestant</a> reformers shut down monasteries and convents, allowing a few hundred municipal hospices to remain in operation in northern Europe. Nuns who had been serving as nurses were given pensions or told to marry and stay home.<sup id="cite_ref-18" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-18"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>18<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nursing care went to the inexperienced as traditional caretakers, rooted in the <a href="Roman_Catholic_Church" class="mw-redirect" title="Roman Catholic Church">Roman Catholic Church</a>, were removed from their positions. The nursing profession in Europe was extinguished for approximately 200 years.<sup id="cite_ref-19" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-19"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>19<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="19th_century">19th century</h3></div>

<p>During the <a href="Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>, <a href="Princess_Charlotte_of_W%C3%BCrttemberg" title="Princess Charlotte of Württemberg">Grand Duchess Elena Pavlovna</a> called for women to join the Order of Exaltation of the Cross (<i>Krestodvizhenskaya Obshchina</i>) for a year of service in military hospitals. The first section of twenty-eight "sisters", headed by Aleksandra Petrovna Stakhovich, the Directress of the Order, reached Crimea early in November 1854.<sup id="cite_ref-20" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-20"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>20<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p><a href="Florence_Nightingale" title="Florence Nightingale">Florence Nightingale</a> laid the foundations of professional nursing after the <a href="Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-WINKEL2009_22-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-WINKEL2009-22"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>22<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> in light of a comprehensive statistical study she made of <a href="Sanitation" title="Sanitation">sanitation</a> in India, leading her to emphasize the importance of sanitation. "After 10 years of sanitary reform, in 1873, Nightingale reported that mortality among the soldiers in India had declined from 69 to 18 per 1,000".<sup id="cite_ref-Cohen1984_23-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Cohen1984-23"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>23<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup class="reference nowrap"><span title="Page: 107">: 107 </span></sup>

</p><p>Nightingale believed that nursing was a social freedom and mission for women. She believed that any educated woman could help improve the care of the ill.<sup id="cite_ref-24" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-24"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>24<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Her <i><a href="Notes_on_Nursing" title="Notes on Nursing">Notes on Nursing</a></i> (1859) was a popular call to action. The Nightingale model of nursing education led to one of the <a href="Florence_Nightingale_Faculty_of_Nursing_and_Midwifery" title="Florence Nightingale Faculty of Nursing and Midwifery">first schools of nursing</a> to be connected to a hospital and medical school. It spread widely in Europe and North America after 1870.<sup id="cite_ref-Quinn_25-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Quinn-25"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>25<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nightingale included five factors that helped nurses in her time who worked amidst poor sanitation and little education. These factors include fresh air, clean water, a working drainage system, cleanliness, and good light. Nightingale believed that a clean working environment was important in caring for patients. In the 19th century, this theory was ideal for helping patients, providing a guide for nurses to alter the environment around patients for the betterment of their health.<sup id="cite_ref-26" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-26"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>26<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nightingale's recommendations built upon the successes of Jamaican "doctresses" such as <a href="Mary_Seacole" title="Mary Seacole">Mary Seacole</a>, who like Nightingale, served in the Crimean War. Seacole practised hygiene and the use of herbs in healing wounded soldiers and those suffering from diseases in the 19th century in the Crimea, Central America, and Jamaica. Her predecessors had great success as healers in the <a href="Colony_of_Jamaica" title="Colony of Jamaica">Colony of Jamaica</a> in the 18th century, and they included Seacole's mother (Mrs. Grant), Sarah Adams, <a href="Cubah_Cornwallis" title="Cubah Cornwallis">Cubah Cornwallis</a>, and Grace Donne, the mistress and doctress to Jamaica's wealthiest planter, <a href="Simon_Taylor_(sugar_planter)" title="Simon Taylor (sugar planter)">Simon Taylor</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-27" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-27"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>27<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Other important nurses in the development of the profession include:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Agnes_Hunt" title="Agnes Hunt">Agnes Hunt</a> from <a href="Shropshire" title="Shropshire">Shropshire</a> was the first <a href="Orthopaedic_nursing" title="Orthopaedic nursing">orthopedic nurse</a> and was pivotal in the emergence of the orthopedic hospital, the Robert Jones & Agnes Hunt Hospital in <a href="Oswestry" title="Oswestry">Oswestry</a>, Shropshire.</li>

<li><a href="Val%C3%A9rie_de_Gasparin" title="Valérie de Gasparin">Valérie de Gasparin</a> opened, with her husband <a href="Ag%C3%A9nor_de_Gasparin" title="Agénor de Gasparin">Agénor de Gasparin</a>, the world's first nursing school: La Source, in <a href="Lausanne" title="Lausanne">Lausanne</a>, <a href="Switzerland" title="Switzerland">Switzerland</a>.</li>

<li><a href="Agnes_Jones" title="Agnes Jones">Agnes Jones</a> established a nurse training regime at <a href="Brownlow_Hill_infirmary" title="Brownlow Hill infirmary">Brownlow Hill infirmary</a>, <a href="Liverpool" title="Liverpool">Liverpool</a>, in 1865.</li>

<li><a href="Linda_Richards" title="Linda Richards">Linda Richards</a> established <a href="Nursing_schools" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing schools">nursing schools</a> in the United States and Japan, and was officially the first professionally trained nurse in the US, graduating in 1873 from the <i><a href="New_England_Hospital_for_Women_and_Children" title="New England Hospital for Women and Children">New England Hospital for Women and Children</a></i> in Boston.</li>

<li><a href="Clara_Barton" title="Clara Barton">Clarissa Harlowe "Clara" Barton</a> was a pioneer American teacher, patent clerk, nurse, and humanitarian, and the founder of the <a href="American_Red_Cross" title="American Red Cross">American Red Cross</a>.</li>

<li>Saint <a href="Marianne_Cope" title="Marianne Cope">Marianne Cope</a> was a <a href="Sisters_of_St._Francis_of_Assisi" title="Sisters of St. Francis of Assisi">Sister of St. Francis</a> who opened and operated some of the first general hospitals in the United States, instituting cleanliness standards that influenced the development of America's hospital system.<sup id="cite_ref-28" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-28"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>28<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></li></ul>

<p><a href="Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Red Cross">Red Cross</a> chapters, which began appearing after the establishment of the <a href="International_Committee_of_the_Red_Cross" title="International Committee of the Red Cross">International Committee of the Red Cross</a> in 1863, offered employment and professionalization opportunities for nurses (despite Nightingale's initial objections).<sup id="cite_ref-29" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-29"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>29<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Catholic orders such as <a href="Little_Sisters_of_the_Poor" title="Little Sisters of the Poor">Little Sisters of the Poor</a>, <a href="Sisters_of_Mercy" title="Sisters of Mercy">Sisters of Mercy</a>, <a href="Sisters_of_St._Mary" class="mw-redirect" title="Sisters of St. Mary">Sisters of St. Mary</a>, <a href="Franciscan_Alliance%2C_Inc." class="mw-redirect" title="Franciscan Alliance, Inc.">St. Francis Health Services, Inc.</a> and <a href="Sisters_of_Charity" title="Sisters of Charity">Sisters of Charity</a> built hospitals and provided nursing services during this period.<sup id="cite_ref-30" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-30"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>30<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The modern <a href="Deaconess" title="Deaconess">deaconess</a> movement began in Germany in 1836.<sup id="cite_ref-NAUMANN2008_31-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-NAUMANN2008-31"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>31<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Within a half century, over 5,000 deaconesses had surfaced in Europe.<sup id="cite_ref-BLACKMORE2007_32-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-BLACKMORE2007-32"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>32<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Formal use of nurses in the military began in the latter half of the nineteenth century. Nurses saw active duty in the <a href="First_Boer_War" title="First Boer War">First Boer War</a>, the <a href="Anglo-Egyptian_War" title="Anglo-Egyptian War">Egyptian Campaign</a> (1882),<sup id="cite_ref-33" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-33"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>33<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="Mahdist_War" title="Mahdist War">Sudan Campaign</a> (1883).<sup id="cite_ref-34" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-34"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>34<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="20th_century">20th century</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Further information: <a href="Women_in_nursing" title="Women in nursing">Women in nursing</a></div>

<p>In the 19th and early 20th century, nursing was considered a woman's profession, just as doctoring was a profession for men. With increasing expectations of workplace equality during the late 20th century, nursing became an officially <a href="Gender_marking_in_job_titles" title="Gender marking in job titles">gender-neutral</a> profession, though in practice the percentage of male nurses remained well below that of female <a href="Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> in the 21st century.<sup id="cite_ref-35" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-35"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>35<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-36" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-36"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>36<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Hospital-based training became standard in the US in the early 1900s, with an emphasis on practical experience. The Nightingale-style school began to disappear. Hospitals and physicians saw women in nursing as a source of free/inexpensive labor. Exploitation of nurses was not uncommon by employers, physicians, and education providers.<sup id="cite_ref-CHIN2008_37-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-CHIN2008-37"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>37<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many nurses saw active duty in the <a href="World_War_I" title="World War I">First World War</a>, but the profession transformed again during the <a href="World_War_II" title="World War II">Second World War</a>. British nurses of the Army Nursing Service were part of every overseas campaign.<sup id="cite_ref-38" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-38"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>38<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> More nurses volunteered for service in the US <a href="United_States_Army" title="United States Army">Army</a> and <a href="United_States_Navy" title="United States Navy">Navy</a> than any other occupation.<sup id="cite_ref-39" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-39"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>39<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-40" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-40"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>40<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Nazis had their own Brown Nurses, numbering 40,000.<sup id="cite_ref-41" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-41"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>41<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Two dozen German Red Cross nurses were awarded the <a href="Iron_Cross" title="Iron Cross">Iron Cross</a> for heroism under fire.<sup id="cite_ref-42" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-42"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>42<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<p>The development of undergraduate and post-graduate <a href="Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">nursing degrees</a> came after the war. Nursing research and a desire for association and organization led to the formation of <a href="Professional_organizations" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional organizations">professional organizations</a> and <a href="Nursing_journal" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing journal">academic journals</a>. Nursing became recognized as a distinct academic discipline, initially tasked to define the <a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">theoretical basis</a> for practice.<sup id="cite_ref-ALLIGOOD2013_43-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ALLIGOOD2013-43"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>43<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Shortages">Shortages</h4></div>

<p>Nurses are perceived to be in short supply around the world, particularly in South East Asia and Africa.<sup id="cite_ref-44" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-44"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>44<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A global survey by <a href="McKinsey_%26_Company" title="McKinsey & Company">McKinsey & Company</a> in 2022 found that between 28% and 38% of nurse respondents in the United States, the United Kingdom, Singapore, Japan, and France said they were likely to leave their role in direct patient care in the next year. The top five factors which they said would make them stay were:

</p>

<ul><li>Safe working environment</li>

<li>Work-life balance</li>

<li>Caring and trusting team-mates</li>

<li>Meaningful work</li>

<li>Flexible work schedule</li></ul>

<p>Pay ranked eighth on the list.<sup id="cite_ref-45" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-45"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>45<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> A 2023 American survey found that around 30% were considering leaving patient care.<sup id="cite_ref-46" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-46"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>46<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Definition">Definition</h2></div>

<p>According to the traditional interpretation physicians are concerned with curing or treating medical conditions, while nurses focus on care. In healthcare settings this line is often blurred, complicating the task of distinguishing the professions.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984–5_47-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984–5-47"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>47<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Although nursing practice varies both through its various specialties and countries, nursing organizations offer the following definitions:

</p>

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</style><blockquote class="templatequote"><p> Nursing encompasses autonomous and collaborative care of individuals of all ages, families, groups and communities, sick or well, and in all settings. Nursing includes the promotion of health, prevention of illness, and the care of ill, disabled and dying people. Advocacy, promotion of a safe environment, research, participation in shaping health policy and in patient and health systems management, and education are also key nursing roles. </p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="International_Council_of_Nurses" title="International Council of Nurses">International Council of Nurses</a><sup id="cite_ref-ICN_48-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICN-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The use of clinical judgment in the provision of care to enable people to improve, maintain, or recover health, to cope with health problems, and to achieve the best possible quality of life, whatever their disease or disability, until death.</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="Royal_College_of_Nursing" title="Royal College of Nursing">Royal College of Nursing</a> (2003) <sup id="cite_ref-49" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-49"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>49<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>Nursing is the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and abilities; prevention of illness and injury; alleviation of suffering through the diagnosis and treatment of human responses; and advocacy in health care for individuals, families, communities, and populations.</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="American_Nurses_Association" title="American Nurses Association">American Nurses Association</a><sup id="cite_ref-50" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-50"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>50<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

<blockquote class="templatequote"><p>The unique function of the nurse is to assist the individual, sick or well, in the performance of those activities contributing to health or its recovery (or to peaceful death) that he would perform unaided if he had the necessary strength, will or knowledge.</p></blockquote><div class="templatequotecite"><p style="display: inline; padding-left: 2.3em;">— <a href="Virginia_Avenel_Henderson" class="mw-redirect" title="Virginia Avenel Henderson">Virginia Avenel Henderson</a><sup id="cite_ref-51" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-51"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>51<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></p></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Professional_nursing">Professional nursing</h2></div>

<p>The practice of nursing is based upon a <a href="Social_contract" title="Social contract">social contract</a> that delineates professional rights and responsibilities as well as accountability mechanisms. In almost all countries, nursing practice is defined and governed by law, and entrance to the profession is regulated at the national or state level.

</p><p>The nursing community worldwide aims for professional nurses to ensure quality care, while maintaining their credentials, code of <a href="Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">ethics</a>, standards, and competencies, and continuing their education.<sup id="cite_ref-ICN_48-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-ICN-48"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>48<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Multiple educational paths lead to becoming a professional nurse; these vary by jurisdiction; all involve extensive study of <a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">nursing theory</a> and practice as well as training in clinical skills.

</p><p>Nurses provide care based on the individual's physical, emotional, psychological, intellectual, social, and spiritual needs. The profession combines physical science, social science, nursing theory, and technology.

</p><p>Nurses typically hold one or more formal credentials. Roles and responsibilities follow the level of education. For example, in the United States, <a href="Licensed_Practical_Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Licensed Practical Nurse">Licensed Practical Nurses</a> (LPN) have less education than <a href="Registered_Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered Nurse">Registered Nurses</a> (RN) and accordingly, a narrower scope of practice.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Diversity">Diversity</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Men_in_nursing" title="Men in nursing">Men in nursing</a></div>

<p>Nursing is a female-dominated profession in many countries; according to the <a href="World_Health_Organization" title="World Health Organization">WHO's</a> 2020 <i>State of the World's Nursing,</i> approximately 90% of the nursing workforce is female.<sup id="cite_ref-52" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-52"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>52<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> For instance, the male-to-female ratio of nurses is approximately 1:19 in Canada and the United States.<sup id="cite_ref-53" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-53"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>53<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-54" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-54"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>54<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This ratio is matched in many other countries. Notable exceptions include <a href="Francophone_Africa" class="mw-redirect" title="Francophone Africa">Francophone Africa</a>, which includes the countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cameroon, Chad, Congo, <a href="C%C3%B4te_d'Ivoire" class="mw-redirect" title="Côte d'Ivoire">Côte d'Ivoire</a>, the <a href="Democratic_Republic_of_Congo" class="mw-redirect" title="Democratic Republic of Congo">Democratic Republic of Congo</a>, <a href="Djibouti" title="Djibouti">Djibouti</a>, <a href="Guinea" title="Guinea">Guinea</a>, <a href="Gabon" title="Gabon">Gabon</a>, <a href="Mali" title="Mali">Mali</a>, <a href="Mauritania" title="Mauritania">Mauritania</a>, <a href="Niger" title="Niger">Niger</a>, <a href="Rwanda" title="Rwanda">Rwanda</a>, <a href="Senegal" title="Senegal">Senegal</a>, and <a href="Togo" title="Togo">Togo</a>, which all have more male than female nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-MIN_55-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MIN-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In Europe, in countries such as <a href="Spain" title="Spain">Spain</a>, <a href="Portugal" title="Portugal">Portugal</a>, <a href="Czech_Republic" title="Czech Republic">Czech Republic</a> and <a href="Italy" title="Italy">Italy</a>, over 20% of nurses are male.<sup id="cite_ref-MIN_55-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-MIN-55"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>55<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> As of 2016, 11% of nurses and midwives registered with the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) in the UK were male.<sup id="cite_ref-56" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-56"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>56<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The number of male nurses in the United States doubled between 1980 and 2000.<sup id="cite_ref-57" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-57"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>57<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> On average, male nurses in the US receive more pay than female nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-58" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-58"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>58<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Theory_and_process">Theory and process</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">Nursing theory</a> and <a href="Nursing_process" title="Nursing process">Nursing process</a></div>

<p>Nursing practice is the actual provision of nursing care. In providing care, nurses implement a <a href="Nursing_care_plan" title="Nursing care plan">nursing care plan</a> defined using the <a href="Nursing_process" title="Nursing process">nursing process</a>. This is based around a specific <a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">nursing theory</a> that is selected based on the care setting and the population served. In providing nursing care, the nurse uses both nursing theory and best practice derived from <a href="Nursing_research" title="Nursing research">nursing research</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Weber2014_59-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Weber2014-59"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>59<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Many nursing theories are in use.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_60-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Like other disciplines, the profession has developed multiple theories derived from reflecting varying philosophical beliefs and <a href="Paradigm" title="Paradigm">paradigms</a> or <a href="Worldview" title="Worldview">worldviews</a>.

</p><p>In general terms, the nursing process is the method used to <a href="Nursing_assessment" title="Nursing assessment">assess</a> and <a href="Nursing_diagnosis" title="Nursing diagnosis">diagnose</a> needs, plan outcomes and interventions, implement interventions, and evaluate outcomes. The nursing process as defined by the <a href="American_Nurses_Association" title="American Nurses Association">American Nurses Association</a> comprises five steps: 1) evaluate, 2) implement, 3) plan, 4) diagnose, and 5) assess.<sup id="cite_ref-:3_60-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:3-60"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>60<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Healthcare_staffing_platforms">Healthcare staffing platforms</h2></div>

<p><a href="Digital_health" title="Digital health">Digital health</a> platforms connect nurses and nurse assistants with job openings in healthcare facilities such as skilled nursing homes, home health agencies, and hospitals. Platforms offer an app to facilitate communication and allow nurses to find work opportunities based on their preferences. Healthcare partners and facilities benefit from access to qualified nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-61" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-61"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>61<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2017, the UK's National Health Service began trialing such a platform.<sup id="cite_ref-62" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-62"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>62<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Platforms such as <a href="United_States" title="United States">United States</a>–based ConnectRN, Nomad Health, Gale Healthcare solutions or Lantum add resources, career development tools, and networking opportunities.<sup id="cite_ref-63" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-63"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>63<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nursing_as_a_science">Nursing as a science</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nursing_research" title="Nursing research">Nursing research</a></div>

<p>Florence Nightingale's <a href="Notes_on_Matters_Affecting_the_Health%2C_Efficiency_and_Hospital_Administration_of_the_British_Army" class="mw-redirect" title="Notes on Matters Affecting the Health, Efficiency and Hospital Administration of the British Army">seminal epidemiological study</a> examining mortality among British soldiers during the <a href="Crimean_War" title="Crimean War">Crimean War</a> was published in 1858.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoswellCannon201430–31_64-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoswellCannon201430–31-64"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>64<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> With the exception of her works, nursing practice remained an oral tradition until the mid-20th century. The inaugural issue of <i><a href="Nursing_Research" title="Nursing Research">Nursing Research</a></i>, the first scientific journal specialized in nursing, came in in 1952. During the 1960s, interest in attaining PhDs increased among nurses in the US, but nursing remained a fledgling area of research, with few journals until the 1970s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEWatson2021From_Oral_Tradition_to_Written_Scholarship_65-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEWatson2021From_Oral_Tradition_to_Written_Scholarship-65"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>65<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nursing research is increasingly presented as a valid discipline, although lacking a prevailing definition.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManhart_Barrett2017129_66-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManhart_Barrett2017129-66"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>66<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The question is further complicated by the numerous interpretations of nursing's defining essence.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEManhart_Barrett200251_67-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEManhart_Barrett200251-67"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>67<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984_68-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Evidence-based_practice">Evidence-based practice</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main articles: <a href="Evidence-based_nursing" title="Evidence-based nursing">Evidence-based nursing</a> and <a href="Evidence-based_medicine" title="Evidence-based medicine">Evidence-based medicine</a></div>

<p>During the 1980s there was an increased focus on research utilization (RU). Nursing research took an interest in clinical issues and US nursing schools began teaching research methods to facilitate interpretation and integration of scientific findings in routine practice. Several RU initiatives were active during the late 20th century, but the RU movement was superseded by evidence-based practice in the 1990s.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolitTatano_Beck201421_69-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolitTatano_Beck201421-69"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>69<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Evidence-based practice (EBP) is about using research, but unlike RU it allows for the integration of research findings with clinical expertise and patient preferences.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEPolitTatano_Beck201420–21_70-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEPolitTatano_Beck201420–21-70"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>70<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The EBP movement had originated in the field of <a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">medicine</a> with <a href="Archie_Cochrane" title="Archie Cochrane">Archie Cochrane</a> publishing <i>Effectiveness and Efficiency</i> in 1972, leading up to the founding of the <a href="Cochrane_Collaboration" class="mw-redirect" title="Cochrane Collaboration">Cochrane Collaboration</a> in 1993.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENieswiadomy2012278–279_71-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENieswiadomy2012278–279-71"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>71<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The emerging area of evidence-based medicine also applies to nursing.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEBoswellCannon20143–4_72-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEBoswellCannon20143–4-72"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>72<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Common barriers to the study and integration of research findings into clinical decision making include: a lack of opportunity, inexperience, and the rapid pace of evidence accumulation.<sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984_68-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTEMulhall19984-68"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>68<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-FOOTNOTENieswiadomy2012268–270_73-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-FOOTNOTENieswiadomy2012268–270-73"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>73<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Scope_of_activities">Scope of activities</h2></div>

<p>Nurses perform a variety of different tasks. Their activities vary based on their level of training and their specialty. For example, <a href="Perioperative_nursing" title="Perioperative nursing">operating room nurses</a> work in surgical settings and perform tasks that other nurses do not.<sup id="cite_ref-74" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-74"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>74<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses may receive additional training and certifications to perform a variety of tasks. For example, in the United States, RN first assists (RNFAs) perform basic surgical procedures.<sup id="cite_ref-75" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-75"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>75<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Assessment">Assessment</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nursing_assessment" title="Nursing assessment">Nursing assessment</a></div>

<p>Assessment is an essential nursing skill. Nurses assess patients' physical and mental health. In hospital settings, nurses regularly perform assessments to notice any acute changes in their patients. Nurses also assess a patient's response to medication or other treatments, such as physical activity and blood transfusions. Nurses may also take health histories. Nurses also must assess a patient's understanding of their health status and their medications. Critical thinking is an important skill for nurses to have: in emergency situations, nurses must quickly assess a patient and determine the best course of action.<sup id="cite_ref-76" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-76"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>76<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Medication">Medication</h3></div>

<p><a href="Medication_therapy_management" title="Medication therapy management">Medication management</a> and administration are common hospital nursing roles, although prescribing authority varies across jurisdictions. In many areas, RNs administer and manage medications prescribed by others. Nurses are responsible for evaluating patients throughout their care – including before and after medication administration – adjustments to medications are often made through a collaborative effort between the prescriber and the nurse. Regardless of the prescriber, nurses are legally responsible for the drugs they administer. Legal implications may accompany an error in a prescription, and the nurse may be expected to note and report the error. In the United States, nurses have the right to refuse to administer medication that they deem to be potentially harmful.<sup id="cite_ref-77" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-77"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>77<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some nurses take additional training that allows them to prescribe medications within their scope of practice.<sup id="cite_ref-rcn_78-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-rcn-78"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>78<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patient_education">Patient education</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">See also: <a href="Patient_education" title="Patient education">Patient education</a></div>

<p>Effective patient/family education leads to better outcomes. Nurses explain procedures, recovery, and ongoing care, while helping everyone cope with the medical situation.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Many times, nurses are busy, leaving little time to educate patients.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_80-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Patients' families needs similar education.<sup id="cite_ref-:6_80-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:6-80"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>80<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Educating both patients and their families increases the chance for a better outcome.<sup id="cite_ref-81" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-81"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>81<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nurses have to communicate in a way that can be understood by patients. Education techniques encompass conversations, visuals, reading materials, and demonstrations.<sup id="cite_ref-:4_79-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:4-79"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>79<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Daily_living_assistance">Daily living assistance</h3></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Activities_of_daily_living" title="Activities of daily living">Activities of daily living</a></div>

<p>Nurses manage and coordinate care to support activities of daily living (ADL) such as hygiene and toileting. This includes assisting in patient mobility, such as moving an activity intolerant patient within a bed. They often delegate such care to <a href="Nursing_assistant" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing assistant">nursing assistants</a>.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Specialties">Specialties</h2></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="List_of_nursing_specialties" title="List of nursing specialties">List of nursing specialties</a></div>

<p>Nursing is the most diverse of all health care professions. Nurses practice in a wide range of settings, but generally follows the needs of their patients.

</p><p>The major specialties are:

</p>

<ul><li><a href="Community_nursing" title="Community nursing">communities</a>/<a href="Public_health_nursing" title="Public health nursing">public health</a></li>

<li>family/individual care</li>

<li>adult-<a href="Gerontological_nursing" title="Gerontological nursing">gerontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatric_nursing" title="Pediatric nursing">pediatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Neonatal_nursing" title="Neonatal nursing">neonatal</a></li>

<li>women's health/gender-related</li>

<li><a href="Mental_health_nursing" title="Mental health nursing">mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Health_informatics" title="Health informatics">informatics</a> (<a href="EHealth" title="EHealth">eHealth</a>)</li>

<li>acute care</li>

<li><a href="Ambulatory_care_nursing" title="Ambulatory care nursing">ambulatory settings</a> (physician offices, urgent care settings, camps, etc.)</li>

<li><a href="School_nursing" title="School nursing">school</a>/college/institutional infirmaries</li>

<li><a href="Military_nurse" title="Military nurse">military</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_nursing" title="Cardiac nursing">cardiac care</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopedic_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Orthopedic nursing">orthopedic care</a></li>

<li><a href="Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">palliative care</a></li>

<li><a href="Perioperative_nursing" title="Perioperative nursing">perioperative</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology_nursing" title="Oncology nursing">oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Telenursing" title="Telenursing">telenursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Radiology" title="Radiology">radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_nursing" title="Emergency nursing">emergency care</a></li></ul>

<p>Nurses with additional degrees allow for specialization. Nursing professions can be separated into categories by care type, age, gender, certain age group, practice setting, individually or in combination.<sup id="cite_ref-:5_82-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:5-82"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>82<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Settings">Settings</h2></div>

<p>Nurses practice in a wide range of settings, including hospitals, private <a href="Home_care" title="Home care">homes</a>, <a href="School_nursing" title="School nursing">schools</a>, and <a href="Pharmaceutical_companies" class="mw-redirect" title="Pharmaceutical companies">pharmaceutical companies</a>. Nurses work in <a href="Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">occupational health</a> settings<sup id="cite_ref-83" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-83"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>83<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> (also called industrial health settings), free-standing clinics, physician offices, <a href="Nurse-led_clinics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse-led clinics">nurse-led clinics</a>, <a href="Long-term_care" title="Long-term care">long-term care</a> facilities and camps. They work on <a href="Cruise_ships" class="mw-redirect" title="Cruise ships">cruise ships</a>, <a href="Armed_Forces" class="mw-redirect" title="Armed Forces">military bases</a>, and in combat settings.

</p><p>Nurses act as advisers and consultants to the health care and insurance industries. Many nurses also work in <a href="Health_advocacy" title="Health advocacy">health advocacy</a> and <a href="Patient_advocacy" title="Patient advocacy">patient advocacy</a>, helping in clinical and administrative domains.<sup id="cite_ref-84" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-84"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>84<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Some are <a href="Lawyer" title="Lawyer">attorneys</a> and others work with attorneys as <a href="Legal_nurse_consultant" title="Legal nurse consultant">legal nurse consultants</a>, reviewing patient records to assure that adequate care was provided and testifying in court.

</p><p>Nurses can work on a temporary basis, which involves doing shifts without a contract in a variety of settings, sometimes known as <i>per diem nursing</i>, <i>agency nursing</i> or <i>travel nursing</i>. Nurses work as researchers in laboratories, universities, and <a href="Research_institutions" class="mw-redirect" title="Research institutions">research institutions</a>. Nurses work in informatics, acting as consultants to the creation of computerized charting programs and other software. Nurse authors publish articles and books to provide essential reference materials.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Occupational_hazards">Occupational hazards</h2></div>

<p>The international nursing shortage<sup id="cite_ref-85" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-85"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>85<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> is in part due to their work environment. In a recent review of the literature specific to nursing performance, nurses were found to work in generally poor environmental conditions. Some jurisdictions have legislation specifying acceptable nurse-to-patient ratios.

</p><p>The fast-paced and unpredictable nature of health care places nurses at risk for injuries and illnesses, including high <a href="Occupational_stress" title="Occupational stress">occupational stress</a>. Nurses consistently identify stress as a major work-related concern and have among the highest levels of occupational stress among all professions. This stress is caused by the environment, psychosocial stressors, and the demands of nursing, including mastering new technology, emotional labor, physical labor, <a href="Shift_work" title="Shift work">shift work</a>, and high workload. This stress puts nurses at risk for short-term and long-term health problems, including <a href="Sleep_disorders" class="mw-redirect" title="Sleep disorders">sleep disorders</a>, <a href="Major_depressive_disorder" title="Major depressive disorder">depression</a>, <a href="Death" title="Death">mortality</a>, psychiatric disorders, stress-related illnesses, and overall poor health. Nurses are at risk of developing <a href="Compassion_fatigue" title="Compassion fatigue">compassion fatigue</a> and moral <a href="Distress_(medicine)" title="Distress (medicine)">distress</a>, which can damage mental health. They have high rates of <a href="Occupational_burnout" title="Occupational burnout">occupational burnout</a> (40%) and <a href="Emotional_exhaustion" title="Emotional exhaustion">emotional exhaustion</a> (43.2%). Burnout and exhaustion increase the risk for illness, medical error, and suboptimal care provision.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Patient_handling">Patient handling</h3></div>

<p>Healthcare has consistently ranked among the industries with the highest rates of musculoskeletal injuries, largely related to patient handling. Anywhere from 30 to 70% of reported musculoskeletal injuries are related to patient handling. Nurses are routinely tasked with lifting, repositioning, and mobilizing patients. According to the <a href="National_Institute_for_Occupational_Safety_and_Health" title="National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health">National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health (NIOSH)</a> the single greatest factor in overexertion injuries is the manual lifting, moving and repositioning of patients.<sup id="cite_ref-87" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-87"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>87<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These tasks present unique ergonomic hazards that result in a high rate of acute and cumulative musculoskeletal injuries.<sup id="cite_ref-88" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-88"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>88<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-:12_89-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:12-89"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>89<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The most frequently injured body part is the back, with up to 72% of nurses reporting non-specific <a href="Low_back_pain" title="Low back pain">low back pain</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-90" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-90"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>90<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The US Bureau of Labor Statistics reported that for 2021-2022 the rate of overexertion injuries leading to days away from work for nurses was 45.4 per 10,000 full time employees, while nursing aids came in at 145.5 compared to the average for all industries of 26.1.<sup id="cite_ref-91" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-91"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>91<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Traditionally, nurses are trained in manual patient handling techniques.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_92-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The body of evidence has demonstrated, however, that such interventions are ineffective.<sup id="cite_ref-:02_92-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:02-92"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>92<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Workplace_violence">Workplace violence</h3></div>

<p>Nurses are at risk for workplace violence and abuse.<sup id="cite_ref-93" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-93"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>93<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Violence is typically perpetrated by non-staff (e.g. patients or family), whereas abuse is typically perpetrated by hospital personnel. In the US in 2011, 57% of nurses reported that they had been threatened at work; 17% were physically assaulted.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>The three types of workplace violence that nurses can experience are: physical violence (hitting, kicking, beating, punching, biting, and using objects);<sup id="cite_ref-94" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-94"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>94<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> psychological violence (threats or coercion); sexual violence (attempted/completed non-consensual sex act).<sup id="cite_ref-95" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-95"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>95<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Workplace violence can be viewed in another way: interpersonal violence and organizational coercion. Interpersonal violence is committed by workers or patients and their families. Its predominant form is verbal abuse. Organizational coercion may include excessive workloads, mandatory shifts, involuntary placement in another part of the workplace, low salaries, denial of benefits/overtime, poor working environment, and other stressors.<sup id="cite_ref-96" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-96"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>96<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> These issues affect <a href="Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>. Managers who lack understanding of the severity of these problems and do not support workers increase worker stress.

</p><p>Many factors contribute to workplace violence. These factors can be divided into environmental, organizational, and individual psychosocial. The environmental factors can include the specific setting (for example the emergency department), long patient wait times, frequent interruptions, uncertainty regarding patients' treatment, and heavy workloads.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_97-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Organizational factors can include inefficient teamwork, organizational injustice, lack of aggression- and stress-management programs, and distrust between colleagues.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_97-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Individual psychosocial factors may include nurses being young and inexperienced, previous experiences with violence, and a lack of communication skills.<sup id="cite_ref-:1_97-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:1-97"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>97<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Misunderstandings may also occur due to the communication barrier between nurses and patients.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_98-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> An example of this could be patients' conditions being affected by medications, pain, or anxiety.

</p><p>Workplace violence has many causes. The most common perpetrators of harassment or bullying of nursing students were registered nurses including preceptors, mentors, and clinical facilitators.<sup id="cite_ref-:2_98-1" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:2-98"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>98<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> However, the main perpetrators of workplace violence against nurses were patients. 80% of serious violent incidents in health care centers were committed by patients.

</p><p>Workplace violence has many effects. It has negative emotional and physical impacts on nurses. They feel depersonalized, dehumanized, worn out, and stressed out.<sup id="cite_ref-99" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-99"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>99<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses have reported burn-out due to frequent exposure to this violence.

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Interventions">Interventions</h3></div>

<p>Interventions can mitigate these occupational hazards. They can be individual-focused or organization-focused. Individual-focused interventions include <a href="Stress_management" title="Stress management">stress management</a> programs, which can be customized to individuals. Stress management programs can reduce anxiety, sleep disorders, and other symptoms of stress. Organizational interventions focus on reducing stressful aspects of the work environment by identifying stress generators and developing solutions to them. Combining organizational and individual interventions is most effective at reducing stress.<sup id="cite_ref-:0_86-2" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-:0-86"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>86<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In some Japanese hospitals, <a href="Powered_exoskeleton" class="mw-redirect" title="Powered exoskeleton">powered exoskeletons</a> are used to reduce physical loads.<sup id="cite_ref-100" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-100"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>100<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Lumbar supports (i.e. <a href="Back_belt" title="Back belt">back belts</a>) have been trialed.<sup id="cite_ref-101" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-101"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>101<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="Nursing_ethics">Nursing ethics</h2></div>

<p><a href="Professional_abuse" title="Professional abuse">Professional abuse</a> by nurses can be mitigated by <a href="Nursing_ethics" title="Nursing ethics">nursing ethics</a> and <a href="Professional_responsibility" title="Professional responsibility">professional responsibility</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-l750_102-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-l750-102"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>102<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="By_country">By country</h2></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Africa">Africa</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Kenya">Kenya</h4></div>

/* start https://en.wikipedia.org/ */

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</style><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Kenya" title="Nursing in Kenya">Nursing in Kenya</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Kenya&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

Nursing in <a href="Kenya" title="Kenya">Kenya</a> began in 1908<sup id="cite_ref-Nursing_in_Kenya_:0_103-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nursing_in_Kenya_:0-103"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>103<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and was conducted without a formal framework until 1950. Over the decades, with demand for healthcare providers increasing due to marked growth in the population of Kenya, training programs were implemented.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="South_Africa">South Africa</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_South_Africa" title="Nursing in South Africa">Nursing in South Africa</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_South_Africa&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">Nurses</a> in <a href="South_Africa" title="South Africa">South Africa</a> practise in a wide variety of specialties, with a wide variety of training and experience.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Americas">Americas</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_States">United States</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_the_United_States" title="Nursing in the United States">Nursing in the United States</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_the_United_States&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p><a href="Nursing_in_the_United_States" title="Nursing in the United States">Nursing in the United States</a> is a professional health care occupation. It is the largest such occupation, employing millions of certified professionals. As of 2023, 3,175,390 registered nurses were employed, paid a median income of $86,070.<sup id="cite_ref-104" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-104"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>104<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nurses are not doctors' assistants and practice nursing in a wide variety of specialties and departments. They may act in that capacity, such as in the <a href="Emergency_department" title="Emergency department">emergency department</a> or in trauma care, but more often independently care for their patients or assist other nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-105" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-105"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>105<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> RNs treat patients, record their medical history, provide emotional support, and provide follow-up care. Nurses also help doctors perform diagnostic tests.<sup id="cite_ref-106" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-106"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>106<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

Many nurses work in a hospital setting. Options there include: pediatrics, neonatal, maternity, OBGYN, geriatrics, orthopedics, medical-surgical, operating room, ambulatory, and nurse anesthetists and informatics (<a href="EHealth" title="EHealth">eHealth</a>). Other options include community health, mental health, clinical nursing specialists, and nurse midwives.<sup id="cite_ref-107" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-107"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>107<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Canada">Canada</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Canada" title="Nursing in Canada">Nursing in Canada</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Canada&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p><a href="Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse">Nurses</a> in <a href="Canada" title="Canada">Canada</a> practise in a wide variety of settings, with various levels of training and experience. They provide evidence-based care and educate their patients about health and disease.

</p><p>The role that nurses have played in the development of Canada has been recognized through the designation of seven <a href="National_Historic_Sites_of_Canada" title="National Historic Sites of Canada">National Historic Sites of Canada</a> related to nursing. Five nurses' residences (the <a href="Museum_of_Health_Care" title="Museum of Health Care">Ann Baillie Building</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-109" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-109"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>109<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Royal_Jubilee_Hospital" title="Royal Jubilee Hospital">Begbie Hall</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-110" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-110"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>110<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Royal_Victoria_Hospital%2C_Montreal" title="Royal Victoria Hospital, Montreal">Hersey Pavilion</a>,<sup id="cite_ref-111" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-111"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>111<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> the <a href="Centre_hospitalier_de_l'Universit%C3%A9_de_Montr%C3%A9al" title="Centre hospitalier de l'Université de Montréal">Pavillon Mailloux</a><sup id="cite_ref-112" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-112"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>112<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="St._Boniface_General_Hospital_(Winnipeg)" class="mw-redirect" title="St. Boniface General Hospital (Winnipeg)">St. Boniface Hospital Nurses' Residence</a><sup id="cite_ref-113" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-113"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>113<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>) were designated in commemoration of the growing professionalism of nursing and of the expanded role of nurses in health care over the course of the 20th century. The <a href="La_Corne%2C_Quebec" class="mw-redirect" title="La Corne, Quebec">La Corne Nursing Station</a><sup id="cite_ref-114" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-114"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>114<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> and the <a href="Highlands_East%2C_Ontario" title="Highlands East, Ontario">Wilberforce Red Cross Outpost</a><sup id="cite_ref-115" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-115"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>115<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> were designated, in part, in honour of the role played by nurses in delivering health care to isolated areas.

</p>

Nurses in every setting demonstrate their commitment to continually improving their nursing practice by annually engaging in a written reflection, an analysis of the year, and 2 learning goals. Every nurse registered in the General or Extended class is required, under the <i>Registered Health Professions Act</i>, <i>1991</i>, to participate in the Quality Assurance (QA) program.<sup id="cite_ref-116" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-116"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>116<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Latin_America/Caribbean">Latin America/Caribbean</h4></div>

<p>Latin American nursing is based on three levels of training: (a) professional/registered, (b) technical, and (c) auxiliary.<sup id="cite_ref-117" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-117"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>117<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nursing education in <a href="Latin_America" title="Latin America">Latin America</a> and the <a href="Caribbean" title="Caribbean">Caribbean</a> includes the principles and values of universal health and primary health care. These principles are based on critical and complex thinking development, problem-solving, evidence-based clinical decision-making, and lifelong learning.<sup id="cite_ref-118" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-118"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>118<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-119" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-119"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>119<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Europe">Europe</h3></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="European_Union">European Union</h4></div>

<p>In the European Union, the profession of nurse requires a specific professional qualification. The qualification of nurses responsible for general care in the EU is regulated in <a href="Directive_2005/36/EC" title="Directive 2005/36/EC">Directive 2005/36/EC</a>.<sup id="cite_ref-Directive_2005/36/EC_120-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Directive_2005/36/EC-120"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>120<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The list of regulated nursing professions is held in the regulated professions database.<sup id="cite_ref-europa2_121-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-europa2-121"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>121<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Germany">Germany</h5></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Germany" title="Nursing in Germany">Nursing in Germany</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Germany&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nursing_in_Germany" title="Nursing in Germany">Nursing in Germany </a> is provided by different levels of professional and specialized practitioners. German-registered <a href="Nurses" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurses">nurses</a> are called Gesundheits- und Krankenpfleger (<i>health- and sickness carer</i>). Previously, the official name for a nurse practicing in Germany was <i>Krankenschwester</i> (female) and <i>Krankenpfleger</i> (male).</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading5"><h5 id="Spain">Spain</h5></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Spain" title="Nursing in Spain">Nursing in Spain</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Spain&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nursing_in_Spain" title="Nursing in Spain">Nursing in Spain</a> is regulated by the General Council of Official Associations of Nursing (Organización Colegial de Enfermería).<sup id="cite_ref-122" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-122"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>122<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="United_Kingdom">United Kingdom</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nursing in the United Kingdom">Nursing in the United Kingdom</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p><a href="Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nursing in the United Kingdom">Nursing in the United Kingdom</a> is the profession of <i><a href="Registered_nurse" title="Registered nurse">registered nurses</a></i> and nursing associates in the <a href="Primary_care" title="Primary care">primary</a> and <a href="Secondary_care" class="mw-redirect" title="Secondary care">secondary care</a> of patients. It has evolved from assisting <a href="Physician" title="Physician">physicians</a> to encompass a variety of professional roles. Over 780,000 registered nurses practice in the UK, working in settings such as <a href="Hospital" title="Hospital">hospitals</a>, <a href="Clinic" title="Clinic">health centres</a>, <a href="Nursing_homes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing homes">nursing homes</a>, <a href="Hospice" title="Hospice">hospices</a>, communities, military, prisons, and <a href="Academia" class="mw-redirect" title="Academia">academia</a>. Many are employed by the <a href="National_Health_Service" title="National Health Service">National Health Service</a> (NHS).<sup id="cite_ref-123" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-123"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>123<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p><p>Nursing is split into four fields: adults, children, mental health, and learning disability. Within these nurses may work within specialties such as medical care or theatres, and may specialise further in areas such as cardiac care.<sup id="cite_ref-124" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-124"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>124<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses often work in multi-disciplinary teams, but increasingly work independently, and may work in supporting sectors such as education or research.

</p>

The UK-wide regulator for nursing is the <a href="Nursing_and_Midwifery_Council" title="Nursing and Midwifery Council">Nursing and Midwifery Council</a> (NMC), and all nurses and nursing associates must be registered to practise.<sup id="cite_ref-125" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-125"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>125<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup><sup id="cite_ref-Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom_ACT2_126-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom_ACT2-126"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>126<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> <a href="Dental_Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Dental Nurse">Dental Nurses</a>, <a href="Nursery_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursery nurse">nursery nurses</a> and <a href="Veterinary_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Veterinary nurse">veterinary nurses</a> are not regulated by the NMC and follow different training, qualifications and career pathways.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="India">India</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_India" title="Nursing in India">Nursing in India</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_India&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

Nursing in <a href="India" title="India">India</a> is the practice of providing care for <a href="Patient" title="Patient">patients</a>, families, and communities in that nation to improve <a href="Health" title="Health">health</a> and <a href="Quality_of_life" title="Quality of life">quality of life</a>.</div></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Hong_Kong" title="Nursing in Hong Kong">Nursing in Hong Kong</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Hong_Kong&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p>Nursing is a licensed professional occupation in <a href="Hong_Kong" title="Hong Kong">Hong Kong</a>. The profession is regulated by the Nursing Council of Hong Kong, a statutory body. Nurses in Hong Kong are divided into <a href="Registered_nurse" title="Registered nurse">registered nurses</a> and enrolled nurses, with the former requiring more extensive professional training.

</p>

There are a total of 59,082 nurses in Hong Kong as of 2019, with the majority of registered nurses working for the <a href="Hospital_Authority" title="Hospital Authority">Hospital Authority</a>. Nursing education is provided by universities, post-secondary colleges, and hospital-based nursing schools.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Japan">Japan</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Japan" title="Nursing in Japan">Nursing in Japan</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Japan&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

Nursing in Japan did not develop as an occupation until the end of the nineteenth century. Initially introduced only in <a href="Tokyo" title="Tokyo">Tokyo</a> in the late 1860s, small schools utilizing Western models were being opened by the late 1880s. In response to disaster relief, the <a href="Japanese_Red_Cross" class="mw-redirect" title="Japanese Red Cross">Japanese Red Cross</a> became an integral part of nursing development. By 1915, nurse registration had been established and public health nurses began working throughout the country. Nursing universities were established in the twentieth century and regulations were passed to develop standards for training and public health. Presently, Japan recognizes four types of nurses: <a href="Public_Health_Nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Public Health Nursing">Public Health Nurses</a>, <a href="Midwifery" title="Midwifery">Midwives</a>, <a href="Registered_Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered Nurse">Registered Nurses</a> and <a href="Licensed_practical_nurse" title="Licensed practical nurse">Assistant Nurses</a>.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Pakistan">Pakistan</h3></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Pakistan" title="Nursing in Pakistan">Nursing in Pakistan</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Pakistan&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p><a href="Nursing_in_Pakistan" title="Nursing in Pakistan">Nursing</a> is a major component of <a href="Pakistan" title="Pakistan">Pakistan</a>'s <a href="Health_care_system" class="mw-redirect" title="Health care system">health-care system</a>. The topic has been the subject of extensive historical studies, is as of 2021 a major issue in the country, and has been the subject of much scholarly discussion amongst academics and practitioners.<sup id="cite_ref-127" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-127"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>127<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> In 2009, Pakistan’s government stated its intent to improve the country's nursing care.

</p>

Nursing is a health-care profession which is mainly aimed on the care of families and individuals. Nursing is important in every part of the world, especially in <a href="Developing_countries" class="mw-redirect" title="Developing countries">developing countries</a> like Pakistan. In 2021, Pakistan faces a great shortage of trained nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-Nursing_in_Pakistan_TNI_128-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nursing_in_Pakistan_TNI-128"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>128<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Philippines">Philippines</h4></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_the_Philippines" title="Nursing in the Philippines">Nursing in the Philippines</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_the_Philippines&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nursing_in_the_Philippines" title="Nursing in the Philippines">Nursing in the Philippines</a> is provided by professionally trained nurses, who also provide a quarter of the world's overseas nurses. Every year, some 20,000 nurses work in other countries.<sup id="cite_ref-129" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-129"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>129<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses in the Philippines are licensed by the <a href="Professional_Regulatory_Commission" class="mw-redirect" title="Professional Regulatory Commission">Professional Regulatory Commission</a>. The advance of nursing in the Philippines as a career was pioneered by a culture of care that is intrinsic in the Filipino people. This began before Spanish colonization.<sup id="cite_ref-130" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-130"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>130<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Taiwan">Taiwan</h4></div>

<div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable">Main article: <a href="Nursing_in_Taiwan" title="Nursing in Taiwan">Nursing in Taiwan</a></div>

<p>In <a href="Taiwan" title="Taiwan">Taiwan</a>, the <a href="Ministry_of_Health_and_Welfare_(Taiwan)" title="Ministry of Health and Welfare (Taiwan)">Ministry of Health and Welfare</a> regulates nursing.<sup id="cite_ref-131" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-131"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>131<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> The Taiwan Union of Nurses Association (TUNA) organizes nurses.<sup id="cite_ref-132" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-132"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>132<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Australia">Australia</h3></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Australia" title="Nursing in Australia">Nursing in Australia</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Australia&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nursing_in_Australia" title="Nursing in Australia">Nursing in Australia</a> is a healthcare profession. Nurses and midwives form the majority (54%) of Australian health care professionals.<sup id="cite_ref-133" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-133"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>133<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> Nurses are either registered or enrolled. Registered nurses have broader and deeper education than enrolled nurses. <a href="Nurse_practitioners" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse practitioners">Nurse practitioners</a> complete a yet higher qualification. Nurses are not limited to working in hospitals, instead working in a variety of settings. Beyond hospitals, nurses also work in aged-care facilities, schools, and correctional services where they can apply their practice to aid those in need. Additionally, Australian nurses are in demand as traveling nurses, particularly those with advanced qualifications to work in remote regions where healthcare is scarce.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Middle_East">Middle East</h3></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Iran" title="Nursing in Iran">Nursing in Iran</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Iran&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<a href="Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nursing educational programs</a> in <a href="Iran" title="Iran">Iran</a> are similar to the nursing educational programs in other countries in many aspects. Holding a <a href="Secondary_school" title="Secondary school">secondary school</a> diploma and passing the <a href="Educational_entrance_examination" class="mw-redirect" title="Educational entrance examination">entrance exam</a> is necessary for the <a href="University_and_college_admission" title="University and college admission">admission</a>. The entrance exams to <a href="Government_university" class="mw-redirect" title="Government university">governmental universities</a> and <a href="Islamic_Azad_University" title="Islamic Azad University">Azad University</a> are held separately. The duration of the <a href="Associate_degree" title="Associate degree">associate degree</a> course for <a href="Operating_theater" title="Operating theater">operating room</a> and <a href="Anesthesia" title="Anesthesia">anesthesia</a> is two years, a <a href="Bachelor's_degree" title="Bachelor's degree">bachelor's degree</a> in nursing is four years, a <a href="Master's_degree" title="Master's degree">master's degree</a> in nursing is two to two and a half years, and a <a href="Doctorate" title="Doctorate">doctorate degree</a> in nursing is four to five years.</div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Islam">Islam</h3></div>

<div class="excerpt-block"><div role="note" class="hatnote navigation-not-searchable dablink excerpt-hat selfref">This section is an excerpt from <a href="Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Nursing in Islam</a>.<span class="mw-editsection-like "><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">[</span><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nursing_in_Islam&action=edit">edit</a><span class="mw-editsection-bracket">]</span></span></div><div class="excerpt">

<p>In <a href="Nursing_in_Islam" title="Nursing in Islam">Islam</a>, nurses provide <a href="Healthcare" class="mw-redirect" title="Healthcare">healthcare</a> services to <a href="Patient" title="Patient">patients</a>, families and communities as a manifestation of love for <a href="Allah" title="Allah">Allah</a> and <a href="Muhammad" title="Muhammad">Muhammad</a>.

</p>

The nursing profession is not new to <a href="Islam" title="Islam">Islam</a>. Islamic traditions include sympathy for and responsibility toward those in need.<sup id="cite_ref-Nursing_in_Islam_ref1_134-0" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-Nursing_in_Islam_ref1-134"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>134<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup> This perspective had emerged during the development of Islam as a <a href="Religion" title="Religion">religion</a>, <a href="Culture" title="Culture">culture</a>, and <a href="Civilization" title="Civilization">civilization</a>.</div></div>

<p>Historically, female nurses during the <a href="History_of_slavery_in_the_Muslim_world" title="History of slavery in the Muslim world">era of slavery in the Muslim world</a> where often slaves, a tradition which continued in Saudi Arabia until the abolition of <a href="Slavery_in_Saudi_Arabia" title="Slavery in Saudi Arabia">slavery in Saudi Arabia</a> in 1962, where nursing was considered a dishonorable profession.<sup id="cite_ref-135" class="reference"><a href="#cite_note-135"><span class="cite-bracket">[</span>135<span class="cite-bracket">]</span></a></sup>

</p>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading4"><h4 id="Israel">Israel</h4></div>

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<p>Nurses in <a href="Israel" title="Israel">Israel</a> has responsibilities including hospital care, patient education, wound care, prenatal and other monitoring, midwifery, and well-baby clinics.

</p><p>Nurses and midwives are regulated by the <a href="Israeli_Ministry_of_Health" class="mw-redirect" title="Israeli Ministry of Health">Israeli Ministry of Health</a>.

</p><p>Nursing in Israeli Jewish culture traces its origins to <a href="Shiphrah_and_Puah" title="Shiphrah and Puah">Shifra and Puah</a>, two <a href="Hebrews" title="Hebrews">Hebrew</a> midwives depicted in the <a href="Book_of_Exodus" title="Book of Exodus">Book of Exodus</a> helping women in ancient Egypt give birth and keep their infants safe.

</p><p>Modern-day nursing was established by nurses sent to <a href="Mandatory_Palestine" title="Mandatory Palestine">Mandatory Palestine</a> and later Israel by the <a href="Hadassah_Women's_Zionist_Organization_of_America" title="Hadassah Women's Zionist Organization of America">Hadassah</a> organization, as well as at a nursing school founded by <a href="Henrietta_Szold" title="Henrietta Szold">Henrietta Szold</a> in 1918. The United Kingdom regulated midwifery in Mandatory Palestine, but nurses were not mentioned in the regulation decree.

</p>

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<ul><li><a href="Advanced_practice_registered_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Advanced practice registered nurse">Advanced practice registered nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_nursing" title="History of nursing">History of nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Nursing in the United Kingdom">History of Nursing in the United Kingdom</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_nursing_in_the_United_States" title="History of nursing in the United States">History of nursing in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="History_of_Philippine_nurses_in_the_United_States" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Philippine nurses in the United States">History of Philippine nurses in the United States</a></li>

<li><a href="Index_of_nursing_articles" title="Index of nursing articles">Index of nursing articles</a></li>

<li><a href="Licensed_practical_nurse" title="Licensed practical nurse">Licensed practical nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_nurses" title="List of nurses">List of nurses</a></li>

<li><a href="List_of_nursing_specialties" title="List of nursing specialties">List of nursing specialties</a></li>

<li><a href="Men_in_nursing" title="Men in nursing">Men in nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Nightingale_Pledge" title="Nightingale Pledge">Nightingale Pledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_uniform" title="Nurse uniform">Nurse uniform</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse%E2%80%93client_relationship" title="Nurse–client relationship">Nurse–client relationship</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_scheduling_problem" title="Nurse scheduling problem">Nurse scheduling problem</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_care_plan" title="Nursing care plan">Nursing care plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_school" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing school">Nursing school</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_stereotypes" class="mw-redirect" title="Nurse stereotypes">Nurse stereotypes</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">Nursing theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Registered_nurse" title="Registered nurse">Registered nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Transcultural_nursing" title="Transcultural nursing">Transcultural nursing</a></li></ul>

</div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="References">References</h2></div>

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</style><cite id="CITEREFAssociation2021" class="citation book cs1">Association, American Nurses (30 May 2021). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://books.google.com/books?id=nBH1zQEACAAJ&q=Nursing:+Scope+and+Standards+of+Practice,+Fourth+Edition"><i>Nursing: Scope and Standards of Practice</i></a>. American Nurses Association. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0-9993088-6-8</bdi>.</cite></span>

</li>

<li id="cite_note-2"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-2">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFMaymounSohail2020" class="citation journal cs1">Maymoun, Nazneen; Sohail, M. Sadiq (2020). "Who Wants to be a Nurse? Understanding Emirati Female Students' Knowledge and Attitudes About Nursing as a Career". <i>Nursing Education Perspectives</i>. <b>41</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">E14 –</span> <span class="nowrap">E19</span>. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1097%2F01.NEP.0000000000000659">10.1097/01.NEP.0000000000000659</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32310910">32310910</a>. <a href="S2CID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="S2CID (identifier)">S2CID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://api.semanticscholar.org/CorpusID:216046198">216046198</a>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-117"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-117">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation book cs1"><i>Siantz, de Leon, M.L., Malvárez, S., (31 May 2008) "Migration of Nurses: A Latin American Perspective" OJIN: The Online Journal of Issues in Nursing; Vol. 13 No. 2 Manuscript 2</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-118"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-118">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFCassianiWilsonMikaelPeña2017" class="citation cs2">Cassiani, Silvia Helena De Bortoli; Wilson, Lynda Law; Mikael, Sabrina de Souza Elias; Peña, Laura Morán; Grajales, Rosa Amarilis Zarate; McCreary, Linda L.; Theus, Lisa; Agudelo, Maria del Carmen Gutierrez; Felix, Adriana da Silva; Uriza, Jacqueline Molina de; Gutierrez, Nathaly Rozo (2017), "The situation of nursing education in Latin America and the Caribbean towards universal health", <i>Revista Latino-Americana de Enfermagem</i>, <b>25</b>: e2913, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1590%2F1518-8345.2232.2913">10.1590/1518-8345.2232.2913</a>, <a href="PMC_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMC (identifier)">PMC</a> <span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5466053">5466053</a></span>, <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28513769">28513769</a></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Directive_2005/36/EC-120"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Directive_2005/36/EC_120-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://data.europa.eu/eli/dir/2005/36/oj">Directive 2005/36/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 7 September 2005 on the recognition of professional qualifications, Official Journal of the European Union, 30.9.2005</a></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom_ACT2-126"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom_ACT2_126-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">United Kingdom Government <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://www.opsi.gov.uk/ACTS/acts1997/1997024.htm">Nurses, Midwives and Health Visitors Act, 1997.</a> London: HMSO, 1997.</span>

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<li id="cite_note-Nursing_in_Pakistan_TNI-128"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nursing_in_Pakistan_TNI_128-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.thenews.com.pk/print/833875-pakistan-has-great-shortage-of-trained-high-quality-nurses">Pakistan has great shortage of trained high-quality nurses</a> The News International (newspaper), Published 12 May 2021, Retrieved 5 August 2021</span>

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<li id="cite_note-130"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-130">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFRogado2006" class="citation journal cs1">Rogado, Isabelita C (2006). <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3918%2Fjsicm.13.229">"Nursing in the Philippines"</a>. <i>Nihon Shuchu Chiryo Igakukai Zasshi</i>. <b>13</b> (3): <span class="nowrap">229–</span>233. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<span class="id-lock-free" title="Freely accessible"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.3918%2Fjsicm.13.229">10.3918/jsicm.13.229</a></span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-132"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-132">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nurse.org.tw/">"中華民國護理師護士公會全國聯合會"</a>. <i>www.nurse.org.tw</i>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-133"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-133">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite class="citation web cs1"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.aihw.gov.au/reports/workforce/health-workforce">"Health workforce"</a>. Australian Institute of Health & Welfare [AIHW]. 7 July 2022<span class="reference-accessdate">. Retrieved <span class="nowrap">17 February</span> 2023</span>.</cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-Nursing_in_Islam_ref1-134"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-Nursing_in_Islam_ref1_134-0">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text"><cite id="CITEREFG._Hussein2000" class="citation cs2">G. Hussein, Rassool (2000), "The crescent and Islam: healing, nursing and the spiritual dimension. Some considerations towards an understanding of the Islamic perspectives on caring", <i><a href="Journal_of_Advanced_Nursing" title="Journal of Advanced Nursing">Journal of Advanced Nursing</a></i>, <b>32</b> (6): <span class="nowrap">1476–</span>1484, <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1046%2Fj.1365-2648.2000.01614.x">10.1046/j.1365-2648.2000.01614.x</a></cite></span>

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<li id="cite_note-135"><span class="mw-cite-backlink"><b><a href="#cite_ref-135">^</a></b></span> <span class="reference-text">Drake, M. (2010). A Us Feminist in Saudi Arabia: 1980-1982. Storbritannien: iUniverse. p. 66</span>

</li>

</ol></div></div>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Book_sources">Book sources</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFBoswellCannon2014" class="citation book cs1">Boswell, Carol; Cannon, Sharon, eds. (2014). <i>Introduction to Nursing Research: Incorporating Evidence-based Practice</i> (3rd ed.). Burlington, MA: Jones & Bartlett Learning. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781449681968</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFNieswiadomy2012" class="citation book cs1">Nieswiadomy, Rose Marie (2012). <i>Foundations of nursing research</i> (6th International ed.). Boston, Mass.: Pearson. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>978-0132756235</bdi>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFPolitTatano_Beck2014" class="citation book cs1">Polit, Denise F.; Tatano Beck, Cheryl (2014). <i>Essentials of nursing research: appraising evidence for nursing practice</i> (8th ed.). Philadelphia: Wolters Kluwer Health/Lippincott Williams & Wilkins. <a href="ISBN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISBN (identifier)">ISBN</a> <bdi>9781451176797</bdi>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading3"><h3 id="Journal_articles">Journal articles</h3></div>

<ul><li><cite id="CITEREFManhart_Barrett2002" class="citation journal cs1">Manhart Barrett, Elizabeth Ann (2002). "What is nursing science?". <i>Nursing Science Quarterly</i>. <b>15</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">51–</span>60. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F089431840201500109">10.1177/089431840201500109</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0894-3184">0894-3184</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11873474">11873474</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFManhart_Barrett2017" class="citation journal cs1">Manhart Barrett, Elizabeth Ann (2017). "Again, What Is Nursing Science?". <i>Nursing Science Quarterly</i>. <b>30</b> (2): <span class="nowrap">129–</span>133. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F0894318417693313">10.1177/0894318417693313</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28899250">28899250</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFMulhall1998" class="citation journal cs1">Mulhall, Anne (1998). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://ebn.bmj.com/content/1/1/4">"Nursing, research, and the evidence"</a></span>. <i>Evidence-Based Nursing</i>. <b>1</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">4–</span>6. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1136%2Febn.1.1.4">10.1136/ebn.1.1.4</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/1367-6539">1367-6539</a>.</cite></li>

<li><cite id="CITEREFWatson2021" class="citation journal cs1">Watson, Jean (2021). <span class="id-lock-subscription" title="Paid subscription required"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://dx.doi.org/10.1177/08943184211051366">"Watson's View of Nursing Science Quarterly's 35th Anniversary"</a></span>. <i>Nursing Science Quarterly</i>. <b>35</b> (1): <span class="nowrap">67–</span>69. <a href="Doi_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="Doi (identifier)">doi</a>:<a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://doi.org/10.1177%2F08943184211051366">10.1177/08943184211051366</a>. <a href="ISSN_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="ISSN (identifier)">ISSN</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://search.worldcat.org/issn/0894-3184">0894-3184</a>. <a href="PMID_(identifier)" class="mw-redirect" title="PMID (identifier)">PMID</a> <a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/34939483">34939483</a>.</cite></li></ul>

<div class="mw-heading mw-heading2"><h2 id="External_links">External links</h2></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikiquote has quotations related to <i><b><a href="https://en.wikiquote.org/wiki/Nursing" class="extiw external" title="q:Nursing">Nursing</a></b></i>.</div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">The Wikibook <i><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Careers" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Careers">Careers</a></i> has a page on the topic of: <i><b><a href="https://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Careers/Nursing" class="extiw external" title="wikibooks:Careers/Nursing">Nursing</a></b></i></div></div>

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<div class="side-box-text plainlist">Wikimedia Commons has media related to <span style="font-weight: bold; font-style: italic;"><a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nursing" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Nursing">Nursing</a></span>.</div></div>

</div>

<ul><li><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="http://library.uncg.edu/dp/wv/itemSearch.aspx?t=1&k=nurse">UNCG Library Betty H. Carter Women Veterans Historical Project: Nurse</a></li>

<li><cite class="citation encyclopaedia cs1"><span class="cs1-ws-icon" title="s:1911 Encyclopædia Britannica/Nursing"><a class="external text external" href="https://en.wikisource.org/wiki/1911_Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica/Nursing">"Nursing" </a></span>. <i><a href="Encyclop%C3%A6dia_Britannica_Eleventh_Edition" title="Encyclopædia Britannica Eleventh Edition">Encyclopædia Britannica</a></i> (11th ed.). 1911.</cite></li></ul>

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</style><div id="Nursing633" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Levels of <br>practice</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Generalists</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Student_nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Student nurse">Student nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_nurse_leader" title="Clinical nurse leader">Clinical nurse leader</a></li>

<li><a href="Licensed_practical_nurse" title="Licensed practical nurse">Licensed practical nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Registered_nurse" title="Registered nurse">Registered nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Graduate_nurse" title="Graduate nurse">Graduate nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_scientist" title="Nurse scientist">Nurse scientist</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Advanced_practice_nurse" title="Advanced practice nurse">Advanced practice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">APNs by role</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_nurse_specialist" title="Clinical nurse specialist">Clinical nurse specialist</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_anesthetist" title="Nurse anesthetist">Nurse anesthetist</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_midwife" title="Nurse midwife">Nurse midwife</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_practitioner" title="Nurse practitioner">Nurse practitioner</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">NPs by population</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Family_nurse_practitioner" title="Family nurse practitioner">Family</a></li>

<li><a href="Adult-gerontology_nurse_practitioner" title="Adult-gerontology nurse practitioner">Adult-gerontology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatric_nurse_practitioner" title="Pediatric nurse practitioner">Pediatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_health_nurse_practitioner" title="Women's health nurse practitioner">Women's health</a></li>

<li><a href="Neonatal_nurse_practitioner" title="Neonatal nurse practitioner">Neonatal</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatric-mental_health_nurse_practitioner" title="Psychiatric-mental health nurse practitioner">Psych/mental health</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Education</a> <br> and <br><a href="Nurse_licensure" title="Nurse licensure">licensure</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nightingale_Pledge" title="Nightingale Pledge">Nightingale Pledge</a></li>

<li><a href="Associate_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Associate of Science in Nursing">Associate of Science in Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Bachelor of Science in Nursing">Bachelor of Science in Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Diploma_in_Nursing" title="Diploma in Nursing">Diploma in Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Nursing_Practice" title="Doctor of Nursing Practice">Doctor of Nursing Practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Science_in_Nursing" title="Master of Science in Nursing">Master of Science in Nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Board_of_nursing" title="Board of nursing">Board of nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_Licensure_Compact" title="Nurse Licensure Compact">Nurse Licensure Compact</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_credentials_and_certifications" title="Nursing credentials and certifications">Nursing credentials and certifications</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_education" title="Nurse education">Nurse education</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_registry" title="Nurse registry">Nurse registry</a></li>

<li><a href="National_Council_Licensure_Examination" title="National Council Licensure Examination">NCLEX</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="List_of_nursing_specialties" title="List of nursing specialties">Specialties and <br> areas of <br>practice</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Ambulatory_care_nursing" title="Ambulatory care nursing">Ambulatory care</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiac_nursing" title="Cardiac nursing">Cardiac</a></li>

<li><a href="Correctional_nursing" title="Correctional nursing">Correctional nursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Critical_care_nursing" title="Critical care nursing">Critical care</a></li>

<li><a href="Registered_Dental_Nurse" class="mw-redirect" title="Registered Dental Nurse">Dental</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_educator" title="Nurse educator">Education</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_nursing" title="Emergency nursing">Emergency</a></li>

<li><a href="Faith_community_nursing" title="Faith community nursing">Faith community</a></li>

<li><a href="Flight_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Flight nursing">Flight</a></li>

<li><a href="Forensic_nursing" title="Forensic nursing">Forensic</a></li>

<li><a href="Geriatric_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Geriatric nursing">Geriatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Holistic_nursing" title="Holistic nursing">Holistic</a></li>

<li><a href="Home_health_nursing" title="Home health nursing">Home health</a></li>

<li><a href="Hyperbaric_nursing" title="Hyperbaric nursing">Hyperbaric</a></li>

<li><a href="Legal_nurse_consultant" title="Legal nurse consultant">Legal consultation</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_management" title="Nursing management">Management</a></li>

<li><a href="Matron" title="Matron">Matron</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical-surgical_nursing" title="Medical-surgical nursing">Medical-surgical</a></li>

<li><a href="Nurse_midwife" title="Nurse midwife">Midwifery</a></li>

<li><a href="Women's_Health_Care_Nurse_Practitioner-Board_Certified" class="mw-redirect" title="Women's Health Care Nurse Practitioner-Board Certified">Women's Health Care Nurse</a></li>

<li><a href="Military_nurse" title="Military nurse">Military</a></li>

<li><a href="Neonatal_nursing" title="Neonatal nursing">Neonatal</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_informatics" class="mw-redirect" title="Nursing informatics">Nursing informatics</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrical_nursing" title="Obstetrical nursing">Obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_health_nursing" title="Occupational health nursing">Occupational health</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology_nursing" title="Oncology nursing">Oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopaedic_nursing" title="Orthopaedic nursing">Orthopedics</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatric_nursing" title="Pediatric nursing">Pediatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Perianesthesia_nursing" title="Perianesthesia nursing">Perianesthesia</a></li>

<li><a href="Perioperative_nursing" title="Perioperative nursing">Perioperative</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatric_and_mental_health_nursing" class="mw-redirect" title="Psychiatric and mental health nursing">Psychiatric and mental health</a></li>

<li><a href="Private_duty_nursing" title="Private duty nursing">Private duty</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health_nursing" title="Public health nursing">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="School_nursing" title="School nursing">School</a></li>

<li><a href="Space_nursing" title="Space nursing">Space</a></li>

<li><a href="Surgical_nursing" title="Surgical nursing">Surgical</a></li>

<li><a href="Telenursing" title="Telenursing">Telenursing</a></li>

<li><a href="Travel_health_nursing" title="Travel health nursing">Travel health nursing</a></li>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Nursing_process" title="Nursing process">Nursing process</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Nursing_assessment" title="Nursing assessment">Nursing assessment</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_diagnosis" title="Nursing diagnosis">Nursing diagnosis</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_care_plan" title="Nursing care plan">Nursing care plan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_theory" title="Nursing theory">Nursing theory</a></li>

<li><a href="Caregiver_burden" title="Caregiver burden">Caregiver burden</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Classification <br> systems</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="NANDA" class="mw-redirect" title="NANDA">NANDA</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_Interventions_Classification" title="Nursing Interventions Classification">Nursing Interventions Classification</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_Minimum_Data_Set" title="Nursing Minimum Data Set">Nursing Minimum Data Set (NMDS)</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_Outcomes_Classification" title="Nursing Outcomes Classification">Nursing Outcomes Classification</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">By country</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="International_Nurses_Day" title="International Nurses Day">International Nurses Day</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Australia" title="Nursing in Australia">Australia</a> (<a href="Timeline_of_nursing_history_in_Australia_and_New_Zealand" title="Timeline of nursing history in Australia and New Zealand">timeline</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Canada" title="Nursing in Canada">Canada</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Germany" title="Nursing in Germany">Germany</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_India" title="Nursing in India">India</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Japan" title="Nursing in Japan">Japan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Kenya" title="Nursing in Kenya">Kenya</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_New_Zealand" title="Nursing in New Zealand">New Zealand</a> (<a href="Timeline_of_nursing_history_in_Australia_and_New_Zealand" title="Timeline of nursing history in Australia and New Zealand">timeline</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Pakistan" title="Nursing in Pakistan">Pakistan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_the_Philippines" title="Nursing in the Philippines">Philippines</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_the_Republic_of_Ireland" title="Nursing in the Republic of Ireland">Republic of Ireland</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_South_Africa" title="Nursing in South Africa">South Africa</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Spain" title="Nursing in Spain">Spain</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_Taiwan" title="Nursing in Taiwan">Taiwan</a></li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom" title="Nursing in the United Kingdom">United Kingdom</a> (<a href="History_of_Nursing_in_the_United_Kingdom" class="mw-redirect" title="History of Nursing in the United Kingdom">history</a>)</li>

<li><a href="Nursing_in_the_United_States" title="Nursing in the United States">United States</a> (<a href="History_of_nursing_in_the_United_States" title="History of nursing in the United States">history</a>)</li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> <b>Category</b></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Category:Nursing" class="extiw external" title="commons:Category:Nursing"><b>Commons</b></a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> <b>WikiProject</b></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Reproductive_labor67" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Reproductive_labor67" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Reproductive_labor" title="Reproductive labor">Reproductive labor</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Types of labor</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Women's_work" title="Women's work">Women's work</a>

<li><a href="Cognitive_labor" title="Cognitive labor">Cognitive labor</a></li>

<li><a href="Double_burden" title="Double burden">Double burden</a></li>

<li><a href="Emotional_labor" title="Emotional labor">Emotional labor</a>

<ul><li><a href="Affective_labor" title="Affective labor">Affective labor</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Invisible_labor" title="Invisible labor">Invisible labor</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Global patterns</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Women_migrant_workers_from_developing_countries" title="Women migrant workers from developing countries">Women migrant workers from developing countries</a></li>

<li><a href="Global_care_chain" title="Global care chain">Global care chain</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Industry sectors</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Domestic_worker" title="Domestic worker">Domestic worker</a>

<ul><li><a href="Nanny" title="Nanny">Nanny</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Housewife" title="Housewife">Housewife</a></li>

<li>

<ul><li><a href="Women_in_nursing" title="Women in nursing">women</a></li></ul></li>

<ul><li><a href="Migrant_sex_work" title="Migrant sex work">migrant</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Medicine685" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Medicine685" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em"><a href="Medicine" title="Medicine">Medicine</a></div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_specialty" title="Medical specialty">Specialties</a><br>and<br><a href="Subspecialty" title="Subspecialty">subspecialties</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"></div><table class="nowraplinks navbox-subgroup" style="border-spacing:0"><tbody><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Surgery" title="Surgery">Surgery</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Cardiac_surgery" title="Cardiac surgery">Cardiac surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiothoracic_surgery" title="Cardiothoracic surgery">Cardiothoracic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Endocrine_surgery" title="Endocrine surgery">Endocrine surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Eye_surgery" title="Eye surgery">Eye surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="General_surgery" title="General surgery">General surgery</a>

<ul><li><a href="Colorectal_surgery" title="Colorectal surgery">Colorectal surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Digestive_system_surgery" title="Digestive system surgery">Digestive system surgery</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgery" title="Neurosurgery">Neurosurgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_and_maxillofacial_surgery" title="Oral and maxillofacial surgery">Oral and maxillofacial surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Orthopedic_surgery" title="Orthopedic surgery">Orthopedic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Hand_surgery" title="Hand surgery">Hand surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Otorhinolaryngology" title="Otorhinolaryngology">Otolaryngology</a>

<li><a href="Pediatric_surgery" title="Pediatric surgery">Pediatric surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Plastic_surgery" title="Plastic surgery">Plastic surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_surgery" title="Reproductive surgery">Reproductive surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Surgical_oncology" title="Surgical oncology">Surgical oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplant surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Trauma_surgery" title="Trauma surgery">Trauma surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Urology" title="Urology">Urology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Andrology" title="Andrology">Andrology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Vascular_surgery" title="Vascular surgery">Vascular surgery</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Internal_medicine" title="Internal medicine">Internal<br>medicine</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allergy" title="Allergy">Allergy</a> / <a href="Immunology" title="Immunology">Immunology</a></li>

<li><a href="Angiology" title="Angiology">Angiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Cardiology" title="Cardiology">Cardiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_cardiology" title="Interventional cardiology">Interventional</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Endocrinology" title="Endocrinology">Endocrinology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gastroenterology" title="Gastroenterology">Gastroenterology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Hepatology" title="Hepatology">Hepatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Geriatrics" title="Geriatrics">Geriatrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Hematology" title="Hematology">Hematology</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Infectious_diseases_(medical_specialty)" title="Infectious diseases (medical specialty)">Infectious diseases</a></li>

<li><a href="Nephrology" title="Nephrology">Nephrology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oncology" title="Oncology">Oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Pulmonology" title="Pulmonology">Pulmonology</a></li>

<li><a href="Rheumatology" title="Rheumatology">Rheumatology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Obstetrics_and_gynaecology" title="Obstetrics and gynaecology">Obstetrics and<br>gynaecology</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Gynaecology" title="Gynaecology">Gynaecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Gynecologic_oncology" title="Gynecologic oncology">Gynecologic oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Maternal%E2%80%93fetal_medicine" title="Maternal–fetal medicine">Maternal–fetal medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Obstetrics" title="Obstetrics">Obstetrics</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_endocrinology_and_infertility" title="Reproductive endocrinology and infertility">Reproductive endocrinology and infertility</a></li>

<li><a href="Urogynecology" title="Urogynecology">Urogynecology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_diagnosis" title="Medical diagnosis">Diagnostic</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Radiology" title="Radiology">Radiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Interventional_radiology" title="Interventional radiology">Interventional radiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neuroradiology" title="Neuroradiology">Neuroradiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nuclear_medicine" title="Nuclear medicine">Nuclear medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Pathology" title="Pathology">Pathology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Anatomical_pathology" title="Anatomical pathology">Anatomical</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_pathology" title="Clinical pathology">Clinical pathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Clinical_chemistry" title="Clinical chemistry">Clinical chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Cytopathology" title="Cytopathology">Cytopathology</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_microbiology" title="Medical microbiology">Medical microbiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Transfusion_medicine" title="Transfusion medicine">Transfusion medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_medicine" title="Addiction medicine">Addiction medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Adolescent_medicine" title="Adolescent medicine">Adolescent medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Anesthesiology" title="Anesthesiology">Anesthesiology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Obstetric_anesthesiology" title="Obstetric anesthesiology">Obstetric anesthesiology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurosurgical_anesthesia" title="Neurosurgical anesthesia">Neurosurgical anesthesiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Aviation_medicine" title="Aviation medicine">Aviation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Dermatology" title="Dermatology">Dermatology</a></li>

<li><a href="Disaster_medicine" title="Disaster medicine">Disaster medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Diving_medicine" title="Diving medicine">Diving medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Emergency_medicine" title="Emergency medicine">Emergency medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Mass_gathering_medicine" title="Mass gathering medicine">Mass gathering medicine</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Evolutionary_medicine" title="Evolutionary medicine">Evolutionary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Family_medicine" title="Family medicine">Family medicine</a> / <a href="General_practice" title="General practice">General practice</a></li>

<li><a href="Hospital_medicine" title="Hospital medicine">Hospital medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Intensive_care_medicine" title="Intensive care medicine">Intensive care medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Medical_genetics" title="Medical genetics">Medical genetics</a></li>

<li><a href="Narcology" title="Narcology">Narcology</a></li>

<li><a href="Neurology" title="Neurology">Neurology</a>

<ul><li><a href="Clinical_neurophysiology" title="Clinical neurophysiology">Clinical neurophysiology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Occupational_medicine" title="Occupational medicine">Occupational medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Ophthalmology" title="Ophthalmology">Ophthalmology</a></li>

<li><a href="Oral_medicine" title="Oral medicine">Oral medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Pain_management" title="Pain management">Pain management</a></li>

<li><a href="Palliative_care" title="Palliative care">Palliative care</a></li>

<li><a href="Pediatrics" title="Pediatrics">Pediatrics</a>

<ul><li><a href="Neonatology" title="Neonatology">Neonatology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Phlebology" title="Phlebology">Phlebology</a></li>

<li><a href="Physical_medicine_and_rehabilitation" title="Physical medicine and rehabilitation">Physical medicine and rehabilitation</a> (PM&R)</li>

<li><a href="Preventive_healthcare" title="Preventive healthcare">Preventive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Prison_healthcare" title="Prison healthcare">Prison healthcare</a></li>

<li><a href="Psychiatry" title="Psychiatry">Psychiatry</a>

<ul><li><a href="Addiction_psychiatry" title="Addiction psychiatry">Addiction psychiatry</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Radiation_therapy" title="Radiation therapy">Radiation oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Reproductive_medicine" title="Reproductive medicine">Reproductive medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sexual_medicine" title="Sexual medicine">Sexual medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Venereology" title="Venereology">Venereology</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Sleep_medicine" title="Sleep medicine">Sleep medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Sports_medicine" title="Sports medicine">Sports medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Organ_transplantation" title="Organ transplantation">Transplantation medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Tropical_medicine" title="Tropical medicine">Tropical medicine</a>

<ul><li><a href="Travel_medicine" title="Travel medicine">Travel medicine</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table><div></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%"><a href="Medical_education" title="Medical education">Medical<br>education</a></th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Medical_school" title="Medical school">Medical school</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medicine%2C_Bachelor_of_Surgery" title="Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery">Bachelor of Medicine, Bachelor of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Bachelor_of_Medical_Sciences" title="Bachelor of Medical Sciences">Bachelor of Medical Sciences</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Medicine" title="Master of Medicine">Master of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Master_of_Surgery" title="Master of Surgery">Master of Surgery</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Medicine" title="Doctor of Medicine">Doctor of Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Doctor_of_Osteopathic_Medicine" title="Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine">Doctor of Osteopathic Medicine</a></li>

<ul><li><a href="Medical_Scientist_Training_Program" title="Medical Scientist Training Program">Medical Scientist Training Program</a></li></ul></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Related topics</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Allied_health_professions" title="Allied health professions">Allied health</a></li>

<li><a href="Molecular_oncology" title="Molecular oncology">Molecular oncology</a></li>

<li><a href="Nanomedicine" title="Nanomedicine">Nanomedicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Personalized_medicine" title="Personalized medicine">Personalized medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Public_health" title="Public health">Public health</a></li>

<li><a href="Rural_health" title="Rural health">Rural health</a></li>

<li><a href="Therapy" title="Therapy">Therapy</a></li>

<li><a href="Veterinary_medicine" title="Veterinary medicine">Veterinary medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Physician" title="Physician">Physician</a>

<ul><li><a href="Chief_physician" title="Chief physician">Chief physician</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="History_of_medicine" title="History of medicine">History of medicine</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr><tr><td class="navbox-abovebelow" colspan="2"><div>

<ul><li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Category"></span></span> Category</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Commons page"></span></span> <a href="https://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/Medicine" class="extiw external" title="commons:Medicine">Commons</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="WikiProject"></span></span> Wikiproject</li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"></span> <a href="Portal%3AMedicine" title="Portal:Medicine">Portal</a></li>

<li><span class="noviewer" typeof="mw:File"><span title="Outline"></span></span> <a href="Outline_of_medicine" title="Outline of medicine">Outline</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

<div class="navbox-styles"></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox" aria-labelledby="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering45" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Glossaries_of_science_and_engineering45" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Glossaries of <a href="Science" title="Science">science</a> and <a href="Engineering" title="Engineering">engineering</a></div></th></tr><tr><td colspan="2" class="navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em">

<ul><li><a href="Glossary_of_aerospace_engineering" title="Glossary of aerospace engineering">Aerospace engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_agriculture" title="Glossary of agriculture">Agriculture</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_archaeology" title="Glossary of archaeology">Archaeology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_architecture" title="Glossary of architecture">Architecture</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_artificial_intelligence" title="Glossary of artificial intelligence">Artificial intelligence</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_astronomy" title="Glossary of astronomy">Astronomy</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_biology" title="Glossary of biology">Biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_botanical_terms" title="Glossary of botanical terms">Botany</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_calculus" title="Glossary of calculus">Calculus</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_cell_biology" class="mw-redirect" title="Glossary of cell biology">Cell biology</a></li>

<li>Cellular and molecular biology

<li><a href="Glossary_of_chemistry_terms" title="Glossary of chemistry terms">Chemistry</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_civil_engineering" title="Glossary of civil engineering">Civil engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_clinical_research" title="Glossary of clinical research">Clinical research</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_hardware_terms" title="Glossary of computer hardware terms">Computer hardware</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_computer_science" title="Glossary of computer science">Computer science</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_developmental_biology" title="Glossary of developmental biology">Developmental and reproductive biology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_ecology" title="Glossary of ecology">Ecology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_economics" title="Glossary of economics">Economics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_electrical_and_electronics_engineering" title="Glossary of electrical and electronics engineering">Electrical and electronics engineering</a></li>

<li>Engineering

<li><a href="Glossary_of_entomology_terms" title="Glossary of entomology terms">Entomology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_environmental_science" title="Glossary of environmental science">Environmental science</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_genetics_and_evolutionary_biology" title="Glossary of genetics and evolutionary biology">Genetics and evolutionary biology</a></li>

<li>Geography

<li><a href="Glossary_of_Arabic_toponyms" title="Glossary of Arabic toponyms">Arabic toponyms</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_Hebrew_toponyms" title="Glossary of Hebrew toponyms">Hebrew toponyms</a></li>

<li><a href="Oikonyms_in_Western_and_South_Asia" title="Oikonyms in Western and South Asia">Western and South Asia</a></li></ul></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_geology" title="Glossary of geology">Geology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_ichthyology" title="Glossary of ichthyology">Ichthyology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_machine_vision" title="Glossary of machine vision">Machine vision</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_areas_of_mathematics" title="Glossary of areas of mathematics">Mathematics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mechanical_engineering" title="Glossary of mechanical engineering">Mechanical engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_medicine" title="Glossary of medicine">Medicine</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_meteorology" title="Glossary of meteorology">Meteorology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_mycology" title="Glossary of mycology">Mycology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_nanotechnology" title="Glossary of nanotechnology">Nanotechnology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_bird_terms" title="Glossary of bird terms">Ornithology</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_physics" title="Glossary of physics">Physics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_probability_and_statistics" title="Glossary of probability and statistics">Probability and statistics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_psychiatry" title="Glossary of psychiatry">Psychiatry</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_quantum_computing" title="Glossary of quantum computing">Quantum computing</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_robotics" title="Glossary of robotics">Robotics</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_scientific_naming" title="Glossary of scientific naming">Scientific naming</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_structural_engineering" title="Glossary of structural engineering">Structural engineering</a></li>

<li><a href="Glossary_of_virology" title="Glossary of virology">Virology</a></li></ul>

</div></td></tr></tbody></table></div>

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</style></div><div role="navigation" class="navbox authority-control" aria-labelledby="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121176#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1571" style="padding:3px"><table class="nowraplinks hlist mw-collapsible autocollapse navbox-inner" style="border-spacing:0;background:transparent;color:inherit"><tbody><tr><th scope="col" class="navbox-title" colspan="2"><div id="Authority_control_databases_frameless&#124;text-top&#124;10px&#124;alt=Edit_this_at_Wikidata&#124;link=https&#58;//www.wikidata.org/wiki/Q121176#identifiers&#124;class=noprint&#124;Edit_this_at_Wikidata1571" style="font-size:114%;margin:0 4em">Authority control databases </div></th></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">International</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.worldcat.org/fast/1041731">FAST</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">National</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-even" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://d-nb.info/gnd/4032813-2">Germany</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://id.loc.gov/authorities/sh85093362">United States</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalogue.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119332880">France</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://data.bnf.fr/ark:/12148/cb119332880">BnF data</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><span class="rt-commentedText tooltip tooltip-dotted" title="ošetřovatelství"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://aleph.nkp.cz/F/?func=find-c&local_base=aut&ccl_term=ica=ph123893&CON_LNG=ENG">Czech Republic</a></span></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://datos.bne.es/resource/XX531124">Spain</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://kopkatalogs.lv/F?func=direct&local_base=lnc10&doc_number=000071315&P_CON_LNG=ENG">Latvia</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://www.nli.org.il/en/authorities/987007538735505171">Israel</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr><tr><th scope="row" class="navbox-group" style="width:1%">Other</th><td class="navbox-list-with-group navbox-list navbox-odd" style="width:100%;padding:0"><div style="padding:0 0.25em"><ul><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://catalog.archives.gov/id/10644008">NARA</a></span></li><li><span class="uid"><a rel="nofollow" class="external text" href="https://lux.collections.yale.edu/view/concept/5cc25853-c9c3-4443-b6a3-851619732978">Yale LUX</a></span></li></ul></div></td></tr></tbody></table></div></div><div><div class="zim-footer">

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